International human rights law

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Definition[edit | edit source]

International human rights law
International human rights law applies in cyberspace; individuals enjoy the same human rights online as they enjoy offline.[1] States are therefore bound by their human rights obligations to respect, protect and fulfil human rights in cyberspace. States also bear international responsibility for the violation of human rights obligations that are attributable to them.[2]

The source of these obligations is primarily treaty law. The two key global treaties are the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR);[3] many of these treaties’ provisions, along with the provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, are regarded as reflective of customary international human rights law, even though there is no universally accepted codification. Apart from the ICCPR and ICESCR, there are important regional human rights treaty systems, especially for Europe (based on the European Convention on Human Rights – ECHR),[4] the European Union (Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union – EUCFR),[5] America (American Convention on Human Rights – ACHR),[6] and Africa (African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights – ACHPR),[7] which provide for adjudicatory mechanisms by which individuals can assert their human rights against States and which have generated a considerable amount of case-law as a result.

In order to determine whether a State has breached its human rights obligations, the following steps of analysis should be conducted:

  1. Since cyber operations often take place in the cyber infrastructure of multiple States, the issue of jurisdiction must be addressed. Each human rights treaty has its own bespoke jurisdictional requirements and scope. In this regard, every State party to the ICCPR has undertaken “to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the [ICCPR]”.[8] The UN Human Rights Committee (UN HRC) has understood this provision to mean that the human rights obligations recognized within the ICCPR apply not only to persons physically located within a State’s territory, but also to situations where the State exercises “power or effective control” either over the territory on which an individual is located (the spatial model of jurisdiction) or over the individual (the personal model of jurisdiction).[9] Likewise, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) has stated that the ICCPR “is applicable in respect of acts done by a State in the exercise of its jurisdiction outside its own territory”.[10] A few States (such as the US and Israel) have adopted the contrary view and maintain that human rights obligations do not apply extraterritorially. To date, however, these States remain in the minority.[11] As such, although the exact criteria for the applicability of human rights obligations to extraterritorial activities of States are not settled and are subject to ongoing academic and political debate,[12] the prevailing opinion at present is that human rights obligations do apply to some acts of a State outside its territory.[13]
  2. If an international human rights regime is applicable, the second question is whether a cyber operation attributable to a State constitutes an interference with a particular human right. The human rights that are often implicated by cyber operations include the right to privacy[14] and the right to freedom of opinion and expression.[15] Other rights such as the freedom of association,[16] the prohibition of discrimination, the right to life, to health or other social and economic rights may be also affected by cyber operations or cyber-related measures.[17] If the right in question is absolute – such as the right to be free from torture or slavery – then no interference with it is allowed.[18]
  3. For an interference with a qualified right – such as the right to privacy or to freedom of expression – to be legal under human rights law, it must fulfil certain conditions, namely:
    1. be in accordance with an accessible and foreseeable domestic law (“legality”),
    2. pursue a legitimate aim of public interest (such as national security, public order, public health, or morals) or for the protection of rights of others,
    3. be necessary to achieve that aim, and
    4. be proportionate in balancing the means and the end.[19]

Apart from the responsibility for human rights violations attributed to it, a State can also be held responsible for its failure to take all reasonable measures to protect the human rights of individuals in its territory and subject to its jurisdiction (for instance, if it unlawfully allows non-State actors to violate human rights).[20]

Publicly available national positions that address this issue include: Common position of the African Union (2024) (2024), National position of Australia (2020) (2020), National position of Canada (2022) (2022), National position of Costa Rica (2023) (2023), National position of the Czech Republic (2020) (2020), National position of Estonia (2021) (2021), National position of Finland (2020) (2020), National position of Ireland (2023) (2023), National position of the Italian Republic (2021) (2021), National position of Japan (2021) (2021), National position of Kazakhstan (2021) (2021), National position of Kenya (2021) (2021), National position of the Netherlands (2019) (2019), National position of New Zealand (2020) (2020), National position of Norway (2021) (2021), National position of the Republic of Poland (2022) (2022), National position of Romania (2021) (2021), National position of the Kingdom of Sweden (2022) (2022), National position of Switzerland (2021) (2021), National position of the United Kingdom (2021) (2021), National position of the United States of America (2012) (2012), National position of the United States of America (2016) (2016), National position of the United States of America (2021) (2021).

National positions[edit | edit source]

African Union (2024)[edit | edit source]

"53. The African Union affirms that international human rights law (IHRL), whether codified in universal or regional conventions to which States are party or embodied in customary international law, applies in cyberspace, and also reaffirms the universality, indivisibility, interdependence, and interrelation of all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development. Accordingly, States shall respect, protect, and ensure the human rights of individuals and peoples on their territory or under their jurisdiction that relate to the peaceful use of ICTs in cyberspace, including by protecting such individual and collective rights against infringements by third parties and non-State actors.

54. The African Union further affirms that IHRL requires States to protect the freedom of expression online, including the right to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas and to disseminate opinions through ICTs. Any restrictions imposed by States on these rights must be provided by law and must be limited to what is strictly necessary in a democratic society to respect and protect the rights or reputations of others and to protect national security, public order, public health, or morals. The African Union also reaffirms that States shall ensure that ICTs are not misused for the purposes of inciting to violence, hate crimes, terrorism, violent extremism, organized crimes and trafficking in persons, or discrimination on any grounds, including race, ethnicity, color, sex, language, religion, political or any other opinion, national and social origin, fortune, birth or other status. In this regard, the African Union recalls that special regard should be to be paid to persons in vulnerable situations.

55. The African Union is of the view that responsible behavior in relation to the use of ICTs in cyberspace requires States to ensure that their conduct does not infringe on the human rights of individuals or peoples in other States. In particular, certain activities undertaken by States, such as the transnational interception of communications, indiscriminate surveillance and data misuse, may constitute a violation of the right to privacy of individuals who are subjected to such conduct, in addition to potentially violating the territorial sovereignty of States on the territory of which such interception occurs. Despite the existence of international and regional legal frameworks, the African Union expresses concern about the misuse of private data by malicious or criminal actors as well as its misappropriation and commodification by private actors.

56. The African Union affirms that States shall protect individuals and peoples within their territory or in areas under their jurisdiction against violations of human rights that are committed by third parties, especially business enterprises operating in the ICT sector. Moreover, business enterprises that operate in the ICT sector have a responsibility to respect and protect human rights, especially the right to privacy and the freedom of expression, including by exercising due diligence to identify, prevent, mitigate, and account for any adverse human rights impacts of their activities.

57. The African Union emphasizes the importance of keeping cyberspace open, secure, stable, accessible, and peaceful, which is an important element in promoting economic growth, attracting investment opportunities, and advancing sustainable development, especially in developing and least developing States. In this regard, The African Union underscores that, pursuant to the right to development under international law, States shall cooperate in good faith including as outlined in Section X on Capacity-Building and International Cooperation, to support developing countries in their efforts to expand their scientific and technological capacities, including in the area of ICTs, in order to accelerate the realization of the economic, social, and cultural rights of the peoples of those countries.

58. The African Union highlights the importance of bridging the digital divide to ensuring the full enjoyment of human rights. In this regard, States shall contribute to further empowering women and girls. States shall also further promote the full enjoyment of the benefits of ICTs by persons with disabilities by ensuring that the design, development, and production of ICTs incorporates assistive and adaptive technologies that are accessible to persons with disabilities.

59. The African Union calls for the responsible development and management of digital identity systems in a manner that will respect human rights of all individuals.

60. The African Union encourages States to consider the conclusion of agreements on mutual assistance in the area of combating all forms of cyber-crime, which would further contribute to the protection and full realization of individual human rights."[21]

Australia (2020)[edit | edit source]

"International human rights law (IHRL) also applies to State conduct in cyberspace. Under IHRL, States have obligations to protect relevant human rights of individuals under their jurisdiction, including the right to privacy, where those rights are exercised or realised through or in cyberspace. Subject to lawful derogations and limitations, States must ensure without distinction individuals' rights to privacy, freedom of expression and freedom of association online."[22]

Canada (2022)[edit | edit source]

"38. It is beyond dispute that international human rights law applies to activities in cyberspace. For many years, Canada has consistently advanced that all individuals enjoy the same human rights, and States are bound by the same human rights obligations, online just as offline.[23] States’ activities in cyberspace must be in accordance with their international human rights obligations as expressed in the international human rights treaties to which they are a party, and in customary international law.

39. Canada notes that according to Article 2(1) of The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, each State Party is required to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in that instrument, without distinction.[24]

40. The internationally recognized human rights that are of particular concern in relation to cyberspace include the right to freedom of expression and to hold opinions without unlawful interference, freedom of association and of peaceful assembly, freedom from discrimination, and the right not to be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with one’s privacy or correspondence."[25]

Costa Rica (2023)[edit | edit source]

"31. As affirmed by the UN Human Rights Council, human rights apply online just as they do offline. States have obligations to respect, protect and ensure the enjoyment of a range of human rights, including civil and political rights as well as social, economic and cultural rights.

32. Under certain human rights treaties, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights65 and the American Convention on Human Rights, those obligations are subject to a State’s jurisdiction. In Costa Rica’s view, jurisdiction goes beyond a State’s territory, areas or persons under its physical control. It extends to all human rights over whose enjoyment the State exercises power or effective control, regardless of any physical proximity. This means that, under those treaties, States must respect, protect and ensure human rights that are exercised online or via ICTs and over whose enjoyment a State exercises effective control.

33. Human rights of particular importance in the online environment include the freedoms of opinion, expression, information, and assembly, as well as the rights to privacy and non-discrimination. Women have been particularly affected by cybercrime and other malicious cyber operations, including electronic surveillance, hate speech, doxing, cyber bullying, and harassment. Thus, Costa Rica reminds States of their obligations to respect, protect and ensure the rights of women online, including those laid down in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted how cyber operations may also affect the rights to life and health.

34. Most human rights are not absolute and thus subject to limitation in certain circumstances. In this regard, Costa Rica notes that measures to protect the rights of States and individuals in cyberspace may often clash with certain individual human rights and must be balanced against them. For instance, to tackle online disinformation, the rights to receive and impart information freely on the Internet may be limited. Costa Rica stresses that the test for assessing the lawfulness of such limitations generally requires States to assess whether the limitation is grounded in sufficiently clear and accessible laws (legality), fulfils a legitimate purpose (legitimacy), and is necessary and proportionate to achieve this aim (necessity and proportionality). This test must always be applied when the application of the rights and obligations discussed above implicates human rights online".[26]

Czech Republic (2020)[edit | edit source]

"[...]the Czech Republic also recognizes that the rights of states to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the ICTs located on its territory gives rise not only to rights but also obligations. In particular, the Czech Republic wishes to reiterate that international human rights law is applicable to cyberspace in its entirety.

Indeed, the same rights that people have offline must also be protected online, in particular freedom of expression, which is applicable regardless of frontiers and through any media of one’s choice, in accordance with article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).

Furthermore, the Czech Republic reiterates that freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, enshrined in Article 22 of the ICCPR, applies to cyberspace as much as it applies to the physical domain.

In this context, the Czech Republic calls attention to the recommendations of the UN Special Rapporteur that call on states to ensure that any interference with the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association is “prescribed by law”. Furthermore, any restrictions implemented on the grounds of “national security”, “public safety” or “protection of morals” should be clearly and narrowly defined in law, so as to prevent their abuse by authorities.

Finally, the Czech Republic recalls that the right to privacy, enshrined in Article 17 of the ICCPR, is fully applicable in the digital sphere. States must demonstrate that any interference with an individual’s privacy is both necessary and proportionate to address the specific identified security risks. We see the role for a private sector here as well.

In this context, the Czech Republic calls upon all States to address cybersecurity concerns in accordance with their international human rights obligations to ensure the protection of all human rights online, in particular the three rights we just spoke of - freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of association and the right to privacy."[27]

"[...]the Czech Republic welcomes initiative of Freedom Online Coalition and fully supports its recent Joint statement on Human Rights Impact of Cybersecurity Laws, Practices and Policies approved at the summit in Accra[...]."[28]

Estonia (2021)[edit | edit source]

All states bear an obligation to ensure and protect fundamental rights and freedoms both online as well as offline.

In regards to state use of ICTs, states must comply with Human Rights obligations including those deriving from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

Cybersecurity and human rights are complementary, mutually reinforcing and interdependent. Both need to be pursued together to effectively promote freedom and security. Cybersecurity laws, policies and practices must not be used as a pretext to silence human rights defenders and restrict human rights and fundamental freedoms in general.

The prevention, mitigation of as well as responses to cyber incidents should not violate human rights. This in particular includes the freedom of expression, the freedom to seek, receive and impart information, the freedom of peaceful assembly and association, and the right to privacy.

As a founding member of Freedom Online Coalition (FOC) Estonia nationally and internationally supports policies and practices that promote the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms online.

Public authorities have a duty to respect and protect the freedom of expression and the freedom to seek, receive and impart information. Estonia is a proponent of transparency in government processes – transparency is essential in order for citizens to be able to trust the e-services provided to them. In addition, the development of e-government solutions in the public sector has to go hand in hand with safeguarding the privacy of citizens and the security of their data.[29]

Finland (2020)[edit | edit source]

"A number of specific human rights such as the freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to access to information, and the right to privacy are particularly relevant in cyberspace. It should nevertheless be underlined that individuals enjoy the same international human rights with respect to cyber-related activities as otherwise and, accordingly, that States are bound by all their human rights obligations both online and offline. Furthermore, each State has to protect individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction from interference with their rights by third parties."[30]

Ireland (2023)[edit | edit source]

"33. States are bound by international human rights law in respect of activities in cyberspace. The same rights that individuals enjoy offline must be protected online.[23] This includes international and regional human rights treaties as well as customary international law. It is noted in particular that the foremost global human rights instrument, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, applies to all individuals within a state party’s territory and subject to its jurisdiction.[24]

34. Ireland considers an open, stable, accessible and safe internet to be an essential foundation for the protection of international human rights law in cyberspace. Any restrictions imposed by states on human rights in a cyber context must fall within parameters recognised as permissible under international human rights law. State sovereignty cannot be relied on as a guise for censoring free internet or otherwise impinging on applicable human rights. Any exercise of state sovereignty must be consistent with international human rights law."[31]

Italy (2021)[edit | edit source]

"Italy finds that international human rights law applies in cyberspace in the same way as it applies to the analogue world. In particular, each State is bound to protect human rights both on-line and off-line, protecting individuals from possible violations of those rights, including but not limited to freedom of opinion and expression, the right to access to information, and the right to privacy. Respect for human rights obligations must be upheld at all times, including when preventing, mitigating or responding to cyber incidents."[32]

Japan (2021)[edit | edit source]

"International human rights law is also applicable to cyber operations. Individuals enjoy the same human rights with respect to cyber operations that they otherwise enjoy. Pursuant to international human rights law, States are under the obligation to respect human rights. The human rights that must be respected in cyberspace include all human rights that are recognized under international human rights law, such as civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. The human rights that are particularly relevant in the context of cyberspace include the right to privacy, freedom of thought and conscience, freedom of expression, and guarantee of due process. The final sentence of paragraph 28(b) of the 2015 GGE report affirms the above. While Norm 13(e) of the report affirms some of the obligations under international human rights law, it does not change the obligations that are not mentioned therein."[33]

Kazakhstan (2021)[edit | edit source]

"Большинство фундаментальных международных документов в области защиты прав человека, такие как Конвенция Совета Европы о защите прав человека и основных свобод от 1950 года, Международный пакт Организации Объединенных Наций (далее – Международный пакт ООН) о гражданских и политических правах от 1966 года признают в качестве одного из основных прав человека право на свободу поиска, получение и распространение всякого рода информации и идей, независимо от государственных границ, основываясь на праве невмешательства в личную жизнь.

Пользование вышеуказанными правами налагает особые обязанности и особую ответственность. Оно может быть, следовательно, сопряжено с некоторыми ограничениями, которые, однако, должны быть установлены законом и являться необходимыми уважения прав и репутации других лиц и охраны государственной безопасности, общественного порядка, здоровья или нравственности населения (п.3 ст.19 Международного пакта ООН).

В соответствии со статьей 20 Международного пакта ООН всякая пропаганда войны должна быть запрещена законом. Всякое выступление в пользу национальной, расовой или религиозной ненависти, представляющее собой подстрекательство к дискриминации, вражде или насилию, должно быть запрещено законом."[34]

Kenya (2021)[edit | edit source]

"Kenya notes that there is a strong body of International Law which can be applied in the context of ICTs including Human Rights Law based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Humanitarian Law (recognizing that, unfortunately, not only can ICTs become a source of conflict, but they are increasingly both used and developed during conflicts between States) and Customary International Law. All these laws should be studied and analyzed in a fair, open, peace-loving and balanced manner in order to adopt a utilitarian body of International Law that guides the use of information and communication technology in the context of international security." [35]

Netherlands (2019)[edit | edit source]

"Human rights are just as valid in cyberspace as they are in the physical domain. There is no difference between online and offline rights. This has been recognised by the United Nations General Assembly, among others. However, it is clear that ongoing digitalisation and technological advances are raising new questions and presenting new challenges when it comes to the application of human rights. The increased scope for collecting, storing and processing data creates issues concerning the right to privacy. Similarly, the increased options for people to express their views via online platforms raise questions with regard to the freedom of expression. It is conceivable that in the future a number of these issues will require further regulation at national or international level. At present, however, the government believes that the existing range of human rights instruments provides sufficient scope for effectively safeguarding the protection of human rights in cyberspace.

It is also clear that access to the internet is becoming increasingly important to the effective exercise of human rights, not only for human rights defenders and NGOs (which can use social media to draw attention to human rights violations and mobilise support), but for everyone. Rights such as freedom of expression and freedom of association and assembly have gained a new dimension with the advent of social media, as have the right to education and the right to health, given the wealth of information and training courses available online. The right to privacy and the right to family life are another example, thanks to the increased scope for digital communication. At the same time the risk of violations of human rights online has also increased. There is now more scope for surveillance, and disinformation has become more widespread.

The growing relevance of the internet to human rights underlines the need for a secure, open and free internet. The government is working at international level to promote this aim."[36]

New Zealand (2020)[edit | edit source]

"International human rights law applies to cyber activities. States must comply with their obligations to protect and respect human rights online, including the right to freedom of expression and the right not to be subjected to arbitrary and unlawful interference with privacy. States are obliged to respect and ensure human rights to those individuals within their territory and subject to their jurisdiction. The circumstances in which states exercise jurisdiction, through cyber means, over individuals outside their territory is currently unsettled and would benefit from further discussion in multilateral fora."[37]

Norway (2021)[edit | edit source]

Key message
States must comply with their human rights obligations in cyberspace, just as they must in the physical world. States must both respect and protect human rights.

"International human rights law applies to cyber activities just as it does to any other activity. States must comply with their human rights obligations also in cyberspace, as they must in the physical world. States must both respect and protect human rights, including the right to freedom of expression and the right to privacy.

Neither the individuals that are subject to a State’s jurisdiction, nor the concept of jurisdiction, is altered by the fact that the activity attributed to the State is a cyber activity. In this respect, cyber activity is no different from other means that States may use to violate their human rights obligations towards their citizens."[38]

Poland (2022)[edit | edit source]

7. International human rights law applies to cyberspace

"High anonymity, control of data flow, and a largely non-territorial nature of cyberspace pose a challenge for protecting human rights online. Nonetheless, international human rights law applies to conduct in cyberspace. Rights that people have offline must also be protected online. States have an obligation not to violate human rights and to protect such rights when they are violated by non-state actors or other states. The above-mentioned examples of unlawful actions by external actors that constitute violations of a state’s sovereignty or an act of violence may at the same time result in a violation of human rights.

Freedom of speech and right to privacy require special protection in cyberspace. As the European Court of Human Rights pointed out, “the Internet plays an important role in enhancing the public’s access to news and facilitating the dissemination of information in general”. Depriving individuals of access to the Internet or specific websites may constitute a violation because, as the Court emphasised, “user-generated expressive activity on the Internet provides an unprecedented platform for the exercise of freedom of expression”. At the same time, it must be taken into account that such rights may be subject to restrictions necessary in a democratic society, in particular due to public security interest, protection of public order, health and morality or the protection of rights and freedoms of other persons.

Protection of international human rights law in the context of cyberspace requires efforts for the open and safe Internet. Respecting sovereignty in cyberspace must not serve as an excuse for violations of international human rights law. The effective protection of human rights requires that a state refrain from unjustified interference with rights and freedoms exercised on the Internet, and in some circumstances it requires positive actions aimed at guaranteeing effective execution and protection of human rights on the Internet."[39]

Romania (2021)[edit | edit source]

"Human rights are protected similarly both in offline as well in online contexts.

International law does not recognise a right to States to derogate from their international human rights obligations as a defensive-type measure – for instance to restrict access to internet in all circumstance as a responsive measure to counter some types of conduct in cyberspace (which generally pertain to criminal law, like: countering terrorism, violent extremism or fraud).

The circumstances in which limitations to human rights are permitted are well established in international law and apply the same way in offline and in online contexts. In most cases, the factors to be weighted include whether the restriction serves a legitimate purpose, whether it has a legal basis and whether it is necessary and proportionate to the interest it aims to protect.

Therefore, whatever regulation a State adopts (by virtue of its sovereign right) it must conform with its international obligations in the field of human rights. Otherwise it entails its legal responsibility under the relevant international conventions.

It is our view that the existing human rights instruments provide sufficient scope for effectively safeguarding the protection of human rights in cyberspace."[40]

Sweden (2022)[edit | edit source]

"Human rights apply online as they do offline. It is a well-established principle, first expressed in the 2012 Human Rights Council resolution on The promotion, protection and enjoyment of human rights on the Internet. The same human rights responsibilities and obligations that States have in the physical world also apply in the digital world. Although human rights are universal and indivisible, some are particularly relevant to the use of the internet, including (but not limited to) freedom of opinion, expression and information, freedom of association and assembly, and privacy. To enable the full enjoyment of human rights online, it is crucial that the internet remains open, free and secure with equal access and inclusiveness for all. The digital divides, including the gender digital divide, need to be closed. The internet should be governed through a multi-stakeholder approach.[41]

Switzerland (2021)[edit | edit source]

"Human rights are a cornerstone of international law. They are enshrined in a number of treaties including the UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Fundamental human rights are also part of customary international law and can in part be categorised as jus cogens. Today, state obligations in respect of human rights have several dimensions. States must refrain from interfering with human rights (obligation to respect), protect individuals and groups against any such interference by third parties (obligation to protect) and take positive action to facilitate the enjoyment of basic human rights (obligation to fulfil).

Human rights also apply in the digital space and are a key pillar in the international regulatory framework for digitalisation. Individuals therefore have the same rights in the digital space as they do in physical space. This also applies to state security activities in cyberspace i.e. part of the digital space. Human rights obligations are equally binding upon states operating in cyberspace as in physical space. This also applies when the cyber operation in question is being carried out extraterritorially, to the extent that the States exercise their sovereign authority in doing so. If a cyber-related activity results in a violation of human rights, the victim will in principle have recourse to the enforcement mechanisms of the applicable domestic and international treaties in the same way as if the violation had been committed in physical space. Human rights monitoring bodies and tribunals can expand the scope and applicability of human rights in their practice.

A number of specific human rights may be particularly affected by cyber-related activities. An individual's right of access to information, right to privacy, or freedom of expression for example, could be restricted because of cyber operations or other cyber-related measures.

A state must be able to justify restricting these or other human rights in cyberspace based on the same rules that apply in physical space. In principle, any act of state interference requires an adequate legal basis. The state must also be able to demonstrate that in the balance of interests its actions are appropriate, necessary and reasonable in order to meet a legitimate objective.

Switzerland considers the applicability of human rights to cyberspace to be an unequivocal principle. However, new questions may arise when considering how this applies in individual cases. For example, if cyber-related activities are used to block access to social media, the question of freedom of expression may need to be clarified – at what point can this legally protected right be interfered with? Can the individual continue to exercise this right through alternative communication channels? To what extent are private actors also bound by human rights obligations? Human rights bodies need to develop their work in this field in order to ensure the application of human rights in cyberspace."[42]

United Kingdom (2021)[edit | edit source]

"Human rights obligations apply to States’ activities in cyberspace as they do to in relation to their other activities. The UK continues to support the view set out in Human Rights Council Resolution 20/8 that ‘the same rights that people have offline must also be protected online…’. States have an obligation to act in accordance with applicable international human rights law, including customary international law, and international conventions to which they are a party, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, other UN treaties, and regional instruments such as the European Convention on Human Rights.

States’ respect for their human rights obligations in relation to their activities in cyberspace is essential to ensuring an open, secure, stable, accessible and peaceful environment and certain rights may have particular relevance to States’ activities in cyberspace including the right not to be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy, family, home or correspondence, the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion and the right to freedom of expression."[43]

United States (2016)[edit | edit source]

"The Internet must remain open to the free flow of information and ideas. Restricting the flow of ideas also inhibits spreading the values of understanding and mutual respect that offer one of the most powerful antidotes to the hateful and violent narratives propagated by terrorist groups.

That is why the United States holds the view that use of the Internet, including social media, in furtherance of terrorism and other criminal activity must be addressed through lawful means that respect each State’s international obligations and commitments regarding human rights, including the freedom of expression, and that serve the objectives of the free flow of information and a free and open Internet. To be sure, the incitement of imminent terrorist violence may be restricted. However, certain censorship and content control, including blocking websites simply because they contain content that criticizes a leader, a government policy, or an ideology, or because the content espouses particular religious beliefs, violates international human rights law and must not be engaged in by States." [44]

United States (2021)[edit | edit source]

"Finally, while the physical infrastructure that supports the Internet and cyber activities is generally located in sovereign territory and is subject to the jurisdiction of the territorial State, the exercise of jurisdiction by the territorial State is not unlimited. It must be consistent with applicable international law, including international human rights obligations. The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) says: “Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.” All human beings hold certain rights, whether they choose to exercise them in a city square or an Internet chat room. The right to freedom of expression is well-established internationally in both the UDHR and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Both of these instruments clearly state that this right can be exercised through any media and regardless of frontiers. Both of these instruments set forth the right of individuals to publish, to create art, to practice their religions, and to gather together and discuss issues of the day. Regardless of whether these activities occur online or offline, they are governed by the same principles."[45]


Appendixes[edit | edit source]

See also[edit | edit source]

Notes and references[edit | edit source]

  1. See, for example, United Nations Human Rights Council, The promotion, protection and enjoyment of human rights on the Internet, Resolution A/HRC/RES/32/13 (1 July 2016), para 1; NATO, Warsaw Summit Communiqué (9 July 2016), para 70; G8 Summit of Deauville, Declaration: Renewed Commitment for Freedom and Democracy (27 May 2011), para II/11; UNGA ‘Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security’ (22 July 2015) A/70/174, paras 13(e) and 28(b); UNGA, ‘Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Advancing Responsible State Behaviour in Cyberspace in the Context of International Security’ (14 July 2021) A/76/135, paras 36 and ff. This has been reaffirmed by most States in their national positions, such as Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States.
  2. See, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (Judgment) [2007] ICJ Rep 43 [170].
  3. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR).
  4. Formal title: Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (opened to the signature in Rome on 4 November 1950, entered into force 3 September 1953), ETS 5 (ECHR); there are several protocols which significantly expand and amend the obligations of the original Convention.
  5. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, proclaimed on 7 December 2000 (EUCFR).
  6. American Convention on Human Rights (open for signature from 22 November 1969, entered into force 18 July 1978), 1144 UNTS 123 (ACHR).
  7. African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (‘Banjul Charter’) (adopted 27 June 1981, entered into force 21 October 1986), CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982) (ACHPR).
  8. Article 2(1) ICCPR.
  9. UN HRC, ‘General Comment No. 31 (80): The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant’ (adopted on 29 March 2004, 2187th meeting), para 10.
  10. Cf, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (Advisory Opinion) [2004] ICJ Rep 136 [111]. See further, UN HRC, General comment No. 36, Article 6, Right to life (3 September 2019) CCPR/C/GC/36, para 63. See also the approach adopted by the European Court of Human Rights in Al-Skeini and others v. the United Kingdom, App no 55721/07 (ECtHR, 7 July 2011) [131] and ff; Loizidou v. Turkey, App no 15318/89 (ECtHR, 23 March 1995) [62], and recently in Carter v. Russia, App no. 20914/07 (ECtHR, 21 September 2021) [161]. For the position within the Inter-American System see Saldano v. Argentina, Report No 38/99 (Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, 11 March 1999) [17] and in particular the wide interpretation adopted by the Inter-Amercian Court of Human Rights in its Advisory Opinion 23/17 on the Environment and Human Rights, Series a 23 (IACtHR, 15 November 2017) para 104(h).
  11. See, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (Advisory Opinion) [2004] ICJ 136, para 110; UN HRC, Summary Record of the 1405th Meeting, CCPR/C/SR.1405 (31 March 1995) 6 [20].
  12. See, for example, Marko Milanovic, ‘Human Rights Treaties and Foreign Surveillance: Privacy in the Digital Age’ (2015) 56 Harvard International Law Journal 81.
  13. Switzerland has expressly stated in its national position that ‘Human rights obligations are equally binding upon states operating in cyberspace as in physical space. This also applies when the cyber operation in question is being carried out extraterritorially, to the extent that the States exercise their sovereign authority in doing so’. See Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, ‘Switzerland's position paper on the application of international law in cyberspace’ (May 2021) 8.
  14. Article 17 ICCPR; Article 8 ECHR; Article 7 EUCFR; Article 11 ACHR. The exact titles and scopes of the provisions vary. For example, this can be triggered be the practice of surveillance. See Helen McDermott, ‘Application of the International Human Rights Law Framework in Cyber Space’ in Dapo Akande and others (eds), Human Rights and 21st Century Challenges. Poverty, Conflict, and the Environment (Oxford University Press 2020) 194. See also Szabo and Vissy v Hungary, App no 37138/ 14 (ECtHR, 12 January 2016); Liberty and Others v United Kingdom, App No 58243/00 (ECtHR, 2008).
  15. Article 19 ICCPR; Article 10 ECHR; Article 11 EUCFR; Article 13 ACHR. The exact titles and scopes of the provisions vary, and include its counterpart, the right to access to information, as highlighted in the national positions of Estonia, Finland, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States. A violation of this right may be, for example by ‘a DDoS attack that inhibits access to the Internet or the voicing of views, and is attributable to a state’. See Helen McDermott, ‘Application of the International Human Rights Law Framework in Cyber Space’ in Dapo Akande and others (eds), Human Rights and 21st Century Challenges. Poverty, Conflict, and the Environment (Oxford University Press 2020) 194.
  16. As highlighted by many States in their national positions, including Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, Estonia, the Netherlands and Sweden.
  17. See Helen McDermott, ‘Application of the International Human Rights Law Framework in Cyber Space’ in Dapo Akande and others (eds), Human Rights and 21st Century Challenges. Poverty, Conflict, and the Environment (Oxford University Press 2020) 195–197.
  18. See Soering v. the United Kingdom, App no 14038/88 (ECtHR, 07 July 1989) [88]; Ireland v. the United Kingdom, App no 5310/71 (ECtHR, 18 January 1978) [163]; Hurri Laws v. Nigeria, Communication No 225/98 (AComHPR, 6 November 2000) [41]; UN HRC, General Comment 20, Article 7 (Prohibition of Torture, or Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment) (10 March 1992) para 3; CAT, General Comment 2 on the implementation of article 2 by States parties (24 January 2008) CAT/C/GC/2, paras 1 and 5.
  19. UN Human Rights Committee, ICCPR General Comment No. 34 (12 September 2011), paras 21-36; See also ICCPR General Comment No. 27 (1 November 1999), paras 14-16; UN HRC, General Comment No. 31 [80] The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant (26 May 2004) CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 13, para 6.
  20. See, Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras, (Merits) IACrtHR (Ser. C) No. 4 (29 July 1988) [177]. See also UN HRC, General Comment No. 31 [80] The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant (26 May 2004) CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 13, para 8; UN HRC, General comment No. 36, Article 6, Right to life (3 September 2019) CCPR/C/GC/36, para 7. See also the national positions of Finland and Switzerland.
  21. African Union Peace and Security Council, "Common African Position on the Application of International Law to the Use of Information and Communication Technologies in Cyberspace" (29 January 2024) 9-10.
  22. Australian Government, Australia's position on how international law applies to State conduct in cyberspace
  23. Government of Canada, International Law applicable in cyberspace, April 2022, See Footnote [25], Government of Canada, Human rights and inclusion in online and digital contexts (2022), online: https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/human_rights-droits_homme/internet_freedom-liberte_internet.aspx?lang=eng.
  24. Government of Canada, International Law applicable in cyberspace, April 2022, See Footnote [26], International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171, online: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights.
  25. Government of Canada, International Law applicable in cyberspace, April 2022
  26. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Costa Rica, "Costa Rica's Position on the Application of International Law in Cyberspace" (21 July 2023) 9-10 (footnotes omitted).
  27. Richard Kadlčák, Statement of the Special Envoy for Cyberspace and Director of Cybersecurity Department of the Czech Republic, 11 February 2020, 4
  28. Richard Kadlčák, Statement of the Special Envoy for Cyberspace and Director of Cybersecurity Department of the Czech Republic, 11 February 2020, 4
  29. Official compendium of voluntary national contributions on the subject of how international law applies to the use of information and communications technologies by States, UNODA, A/76/136, August 2021, 27.
  30. International law and cyberspace - Finland's national position
  31. Irish Department of Foreign Affairs, Position Paper on the Application of International Law in Cyberspace (6 July 2023) 8. See Footnote [23]: Human Rights Council Resolution 20/8; FN 24: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 2.
  32. Italian position paper on "International law and cyberspace", Italian Ministry for Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation.,10-11.
  33. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Basic Position of the Government of Japan on International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations, 16 June 2021, 7-8
  34. Official compendium of voluntary national contributions on the subject of how international law applies to the use of information and communications technologies by States, UNODA, A/76/136, August 2021, 51.
  35. Official compendium of voluntary national contributions on the subject of how international law applies to the use of information and communications technologies by States, UNODA, A/76/136, August 2021, 54.
  36. Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Appendix: International law in cyberspace, 26 September 2019 , 5-6.
  37. The Application of International Law to State Activity in Cyberspace, 1 December 2020, 4.
  38. Official compendium of voluntary national contributions on the subject of how international law applies to the use of information and communications technologies by States, UNODA, A/76/136, August 2021, 75.
  39. The Republic of Poland’s position on the application of international law in cyberspace, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland, 29 December 2022, 7.
  40. Official compendium of voluntary national contributions on the subject of how international law applies to the use of information and communications technologies by States, UNODA, A/76/136, August 2021, 78.
  41. Government Offices of Sweden, Position Paper on the Application of International Law in Cyberspace, July 2022,7-8
  42. Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, ‘Switzerland's position paper on the application of international law in cyberspace’ (May 2021) 8.
  43. United Kingdom Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, Application of international law to states’ conduct in cyberspace: UK statement, 3 June 2021
  44. Brian J. Egan, International Law and Stability in Cyberspace, 10 November 2016 16-17.
  45. Official compendium of voluntary national contributions on the subject of how international law applies to the use of information and communications technologies by States, UNODA, A/76/136, August 2021, 140.

Bibliography and further reading[edit | edit source]