List of articles

This page serves as the equivalent of a table of contents in a printed book. It contains an updated list of all substantive articles in the Toolkit.

About the project

• Main page
• FAQ
• Note on the structure of articles
• Glossary
• Short form citation
• Bibliography
• People

Scenarios

• Scenario 01: Election interference
• Scenario 02: Political espionage
• Scenario 03: Power grid
• Scenario 04: International organizations
• Scenario 05: Criminal investigation
• Scenario 06: Enabling State
• Scenario 07: Hacking tools
• Scenario 08: Certificate authority
• Scenario 09: Economic espionage
• Scenario 10: Cyber weapons
• Scenario 11: Surveillance tools
• Scenario 12: Computer data
• Scenario 13: Armed conflict
• Scenario 14: Ransomware campaign
• Scenario 15: Cyber deception
• Scenario 16: High seas
• Scenario 17: Collective responses
• Scenario 18: Cyber operators
• Scenario 19: Hate speech
• Scenario 20: Medical facilities
• Scenario 21: Misattribution
• Scenario 22: Methods of warfare
• Scenario 23: Vaccine research
• Scenario 24: Internet blockage
• Scenario 25: Humanitarian assistance
• Scenario 26: Export licensing
• Scenario 27: Redirecting attacks
• Scenario 28: Incidental harm
• Scenario 29: Water infrastructure

Legal concepts

General international law

• Applicability of international law
• Jurisdiction
• State responsibility
  • Attribution
    • State organs
    • Non-State actors
    • Evidence
    • Responsibility of a State for the conduct of another State
    • Mistake of fact
  • Breach of an international obligation
  • Responses and justifications
    • Circumstances precluding wrongfulness
      • Consent
      • Self-defence (state responsibility)
      • Countermeasures
      • Force majeure
      • Distress
      • Plea of necessity
    • Retorsion
      • Targeted restrictive measures
• Due diligence
• Sovereignty
• Prohibition of intervention
• Prohibition of genocide
• Transboundary harm
• Voluntary, non-binding norms of responsible state behavior
• Legally binding unilateral declarations of States
• Cyber operations not per se regulated by international law
  • Peacetime cyber espionage
  • Economic cyber espionage

Specialised regimes of peacetime international law

• Diplomatic and consular law
  • Inviolability of documents and archives of diplomatic missions and consular posts
  • Premises of the mission
  • Persona non grata
• Law of the sea
  • Flag State jurisdiction
  • Freedom of navigation
  • Sovereign immunity
  • Maritime law enforcement
• Air law
• Space law
• International telecommunication law
• International human rights law
  • Right to life
• International criminal law
  • Crime of genocide
  • Crimes against humanity
  • War crimes
• International export control law

Use of force, conflict and international law

• Peaceful settlement of disputes
• International law on the use of force (jus ad bellum)
  • Use of force
  • Armed attack and self-defence
• International humanitarian law (jus in bello)
  • Conflict qualification
    • International armed conflict
    • Non-international armed conflict
  • Conduct of hostilities
    • Principle of precautions
      • Precautionary obligations under international humanitarian law
      • Obligations to take precautions in attack
      • Obligations to take precautions against the effects of attacks
    • Military objectives
      • Data as a military objective
    • Proportionality
    • The notion of ‘attack’ under international humanitarian law
    • Combatancy
      • Direct participation in hostilities
    • Attacks against persons
    • Means and methods of cyber warfare
      • Perfidy and ruses of war
      • Misuse of established indicators
      • Legal review of cyber weapons
  • Specially protected persons, objects, and activities
    • Protection of medical units during armed conflict
    • Humanitarian relief operations
    • Objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population
    • Protection of the natural environment in armed conflict
  • Occupation
  • Neutrality

Real-world examples

• 2023
  • Cyber operations against NATO’s aid mission in Turkey and Syria (2023)
  • ICC data breach (2023)
• 2022
  • Costa Rica ransomware attack (2022)
  • Homeland Justice operations against Albania (2022)
  • Kazakhstan internet blockage (2022)
  • Predatory Sparrow operation against Iranian steel maker (2022)
  • Viasat KA-SAT attack (2022)
  • HermeticWiper malware attack (2022)
  • Cyber operations against government systems in Ukraine (January 2022)
• 2021
  • Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack (2021)
  • UN data breach (2021)
  • Waikato Hospitals ransomware attack (2021)
  • Ireland’s Health Service Executive ransomware attack (2021)
  • Kaseya VSA ransomware attack (2021)
  • Microsoft Exchange Server data breach (2021)
  • Pegasus Project revelations (2021)
• 2020
  • German hospital ransomware attack (2020)
  • African Union headquarters hack (2020)
  • Brno University Hospital ransomware attack (2020)
  • Google shutting down an active counterterrorism operation (2020)
  • SolarWinds (2020)
  • Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine data modification and leak (2020)
  • Israel’s water facilities attack (2020)
  • APT32 attacks on Chinese government (2020)
• 2019
  • Cyber interference against vessels in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman (2019)
  • Iranian internet blackout (2019)
  • Israeli attack against Hamas cyber headquarters in Gaza (2019)
  • Russia's sovereign internet (2019 onward)
  • Springhill Medical Center ransomware attack (2019)
  • Texas Municipality ransomware attack (2019)
• 2018
  • African Union headquarters hack (2018)
  • Olympic Destroyer (2018)
  • SamSam ransomware incidents (2018)
• 2017
  • Ethiopian surveillance of journalists abroad (2017)
  • French presidential election leak (2017)
  • Hate speech in India (since 2017)
  • Operation Cloudhopper (2017)
  • NotPetya (2017)
  • Triton (2017)
  • WannaCry (2017)
  • Wu Yingzhuo, Dong Hao and Xia Lei indictment (2017)
• 2016
  • Surveillance of Civil Society Groups/Ahmed Mansoor (2016)
  • DNC email leak (2016)
  • Industroyer – Crash Override (2016)
  • Operation Glowing Symphony (2016)
  • The Shadow Brokers publishing the NSA vulnerabilities (2016)
• 2015
  • Bundestag Hack (2015)
  • Office of Personnel Management data breach (2015)
  • Power grid cyberattack in Ukraine (2015)
  • The Hacking Team Hack (2015)
• 2014
  • Alleged hacking of Patriot missiles (2014-2015)
  • Chinese PLA Unit 61398 indictments (2014)
  • Sony Pictures Entertainment attack (2014)
  • Steel mill in Germany (2014)
  • Ukrainian parliamentary election interference (2014)
  • Use of malware to track and target Ukrainian artillery units (2014-2016)
• 2012
  • Shamoon (2012)
• 2011
  • Caucasus internet outage (2011)
  • Syria’s ‘social media war’ (since 2011)
  • DigiNotar (2011)
• 2010
  • Hate speech in Myanmar (since early 2010s)
  • Stuxnet (2010)
  • SuperMicro supply chain breach (since 2010)
• 2008
  • Georgia-Russia conflict (2008)
  • Bangladesh internet outage (2008)
• 2007
  • Cyber attacks against Estonia (2007)
  • Operation Orchard/Outside the Box (2007)

National positions

• African Union (2024)
• Australia (2020)
• Austria (2024)
• Brazil (2021)
• Canada (2022)
• China (2021)
• Costa Rica (2023)
• Czech Republic (2020 and 2024)
• Denmark (2023)
• Estonia (2019 and 2021)
• Finland (2020)
• France (2019)
• Germany (2021)
• Iran (2020)
• Ireland (2023)
• Israel (2020)
• Italy (2021)
• Japan (2021)
• Kazakhstan (2021)
• Kenya (2021)
• Netherlands (2019)
• New Zealand (2020)
• Norway (2021)
• Pakistan (2023)
• Poland (2022)
• Romania (2021)
• Russia (2021)
• Singapore (2021)
• Sweden (2022)
• Switzerland (2021)
• United Kingdom (2018, 2021 and 2022)
• United States (2012, 2016, 2020 and 2021)

Keywords

2007  2008  2010  2011  2012  2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  2022  2023  Advanced persistent threat  Applicability of international law  Article 36  Attack (international humanitarian law)  Attacks against persons  Attribution  Breach of an international obligation  Causation  Combatancy  Computer data  Conduct of hostilities  Countermeasures  Crime of genocide  Crimes against humanity  Critical infrastructure  Cyber weapons  Cybercrime  DDoS  Deception  Defacement  Diplomatic and consular law  Direct participation in hostilities  Distinction  Due diligence  Economic cyber espionage  Effective control  Election interference  Evidence  Example  Flag State jurisdiction  Freedom of navigation  Hospitals  Humanitarian assistance  Hybrid threats  Indiscriminate attack  Individual criminal responsibility under international law  Industrial control system  International armed conflict  International cooperation  International export control law  International human rights law  International humanitarian law  International organization  International sanctions  International telecommunication law  Internationalization  Internet access  Inviolability  Law of the sea  Legal concepts  Legal personality  Legal review of cyber weapons  Legally binding unilateral declarations of States  Malware  Maritime law enforcement  Means and methods of cyber warfare  Medical units  Methods and means of warfare  Military objectives  Misattribution  Mistake of fact  Misuse of established indicators  National position  Neutrality  Non-State actors  Non-international armed conflict  Object  Objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population  Overall control  Pages transcluding nonexistent sections  Peaceful settlement of disputes  Peacetime cyber espionage  Perfidy and ruses of war  Persona non grata  Plea of necessity  Premises of the mission  Principle of precautions  Prohibition of genocide  Prohibition of intervention  Proportionality  Ransomware  Retorsion  Right to life  Scenario  Self-defence  Sovereign immunity  Sovereignty  Specially protected persons, objects and activities  State organs  State responsibility  Stuxnet  Supply chain  Surveillance  Targeted restrictive measures  Targeting  Threats  Transboundary harm  Use of force  Voluntary norms  War crimes  Weapons review